ACADEMIC DISCOURSE – A SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS. The Frequency and Types of Hedges in Research Article Introductions by Persian and English. You need a handy set of tools for doing a text-based, qualitative discourse analysis? This post offers ten work steps for conducting such an analysis. Readers should be aware that this is only a test page before I get into proper blogging.' Of all that is written I love only what a man has written with his blood. Write with blood and you will. Quite the same Wikipedia. Markdown is a lightweight markup language for creating formatted text using a plain-text editor. John Gruber and Aaron Swartz created Markdown in 2004 as a markup language that is appealing to human readers in its source code form. Markdown is widely used in blogging, instant messaging, online.

The 'Olivet Discourse' is an overview of the end times Jesus revealed to His disciples the week before His death. It all started when people in the crowd at the temple were verbally admiring the temple stones. Jesus unexpectedly threw them a curve when He announced that the temple they were admiring would be destroyed. This prompted questions from the crowd about when the temple would be destroyed:

Luke 21:5-7 - Then, as some spoke of the temple, how it was adorned with beautiful stones and donations, He said, 'These things which you see - the days will come in which not one stone shall be left upon another that shall not be thrown down.' So they asked Him, saying, 'Teacher, but when will these things be? And what sign will there be when these things are about to take place?'

Jesus gave details about the prophesied destruction of the temple, which later took place in 70AD. But then the Lord reached beyond the prophecy of the temple to the time of the end of the age, when He would return to set up His earthly kingdom. Apparently, the disciples wanted to know more about the time of the end because later, as they were walking out to the Mount of Olives with Jesus, they asked the questions again about the temple, in addition to the questions about the time of the end.

The flow of the discourse follows in the order the disciples asked the questions:

'...when will these things be?'
(Matthew 24:4-26, Mark 13:5-23)

'...what will be the sign of Your coming?'
(Matthew 24:27-31, Mark 13:24-27, Luke 17:24-25)

'...and of the end of the age?'
(Matthew 24:32-51, Mark 13:28-37, Luke 12:37-40, 17:26-37)

This study will follow Matthew's version of the discourse that Jesus gave to the disciples as they walked from the temple to the Mount of Olives. There are parallels to this discourse in Mark and Luke. Some of the Luke parallels go back to the questions asked by the crowd at the temple, which the disciples asked the Lord again later. I will note the passages from the scene of the temple that parallel the scene at the Mount of Olives through the study.

Destruction of the temple - Matthew 24:1-2, Mark 13:1-2, Luke 21:5-6

In the passages above we see that the Luke account took place in the temple in public, while the Matthew and Mark accounts were in private with Jesus and His disciples as they left the temple and walked out to the Mount of Olives.

Apparently, the disciples did not understand what Jesus meant when He told the crowd at the temple that it would be destroyed, because as the disciples walked toward the Mount of Olives from the temple they pointed out how well-built the temple was. In response, Jesus reiterated to the disciples what He had said in the temple - that it would all indeed be destroyed. The prophecy about the temple's destruction found fulfillment in 70AD, when the Roman General Titus and his army conquered Jerusalem and destroyed the temple.

The questions - Matthew 24:3, Mark 13:3-4, Luke 21:7

As mentioned in the introduction, when Jesus announced that the temple would be destroyed, the crowd at the temple asked what to look for to know when it would be destroyed. The dialog in Luke answers these questions about the temple's destruction which took place in 70AD, but then Jesus reached out to the time of the end, which prompted the disciples later to ask more questions about the things he spoke of about the end of the age. The Matthew and Mark passages cover the answers to the questions the disciples asked Jesus.

The disciples probably asked these questions because they thought they were already at the time of the end, because later they asked Jesus before His ascension if He was going to restore the kingdom to Israel at that time (Acts 1:6). The disciples probably were not surprised by the prophecy of the fall of Jerusalem in Luke 21:20-24, because Jerusalem's destruction was also foretold in Zechariah 14:

Zechariah 14:1-3 - Behold, the day of the LORD is coming, and your spoil will be divided in your midst. For I will gather all the nations to battle against Jerusalem; the city shall be taken, the houses rifled, and the women ravished. Half of the city shall go into captivity, but the remnant of the people shall not be cut off from the city. Then the LORD will go forth and fight against those nations, as He fights in the day of battle.

Since the Lord did not return to Earth after 70AD, we know that the passage in Zechariah is speaking of a future event about Jerusalem. The disciples seemed baffled when Jesus said that the temple would be torn down because the prophecies in Daniel, Zechariah, and Ezekiel in the passages below show a temple and sacrifices taking place at the end of the age, which suggests that the disciples did not consider that the temple would be destroyed and rebuilt before the end of the age:

Daniel 9:27 - 'Then he shall confirm a covenant with many for one week; but in the middle of the week He shall bring an end to sacrifice and offering. And on the wing of abominations shall be one who makes desolate, even until the consummation, which is determined, is poured out on the desolate.'

Zechariah 14:20-21 - In that day 'HOLINESS TO THE LORD' shall be engraved on the bells of the horses. The pots in the LORD's house shall be like the bowls before the altar. Yes, every pot in Jerusalem and Judah shall be holiness to the LORD of hosts. Everyone who sacrifices shall come and take them and cook in them. In that day there shall no longer be a Canaanite in the house of the LORD of hosts.

Ezekiel 43:5 - The Spirit lifted me up and brought me into the inner court; and behold, the glory of the LORD filled the temple. Then I heard Him speaking to me from the temple, while a man stood beside me. And He said to me, 'Son of man, this is the place of My throne and the place of the soles of My feet, where I will dwell in the midst of the children of Israel forever. No more shall the house of Israel defile My holy name.'

We also understand today from the passage above in Daniel that the Jews will build a third temple before the middle of the Tribulation, which is a seven-year transition time of judgment between the Church Age and the Millennium, where Christ will rule on Earth for a thousand years. The temple described in Zechariah and Ezekiel will later be built by Jesus after the Tribulation.

Types of Repetition and its Functions. Specific Types of Repetition: Alliteration, Anaphora, Epiphora, Polysyndeton etc. E.M. Hemingway's brief biography. Syntactical and Lexical Levels Analysis of “Cat in the Rain”. J. D. Salinger's brief biography.

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MINISTRY FOR EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENT FOR HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

MOSCOW STATE LINGUISTIC UNIVERSITY

Faculty of the Humanities and Applied Sciences

Department of English Stylistics

Graduation Paper

REPETITION IN LITERARY DISCOURSE

Student: Kukharev N. Yu.

Group 0-8-32

Academic Supervisor:Ph.D. Tikhonova Yu. V.

Assistant Professor of the department of English Stylistics

Reviewer:Ph.D. Sokolova V.L.

Associate Professor of the department of English Stylistics

Moscow, 2014

Index

Introduction

1. Types of Repetition and its Functions

1.1 The Meaning of Repetition

1.2 Specific Types of Repetition

1.2.1 Alliteration

1.2.2 Anaphora

1.2.3 Epiphora and Mesodiplosis

1.2.4 Frame Repetition

1.2.5 Polysyndeton

1.2.6 Parallel Structures

1.2.7 Chiasmus

1.3 Functions of Repetition

2. Analytic Part

2.1 E.M. Hemingway's brief biography

2.2 Brief Summary of “Cat in the Rain

2.3 Analysis of “Cat in the Rain”

2.4 Syntactical and Lexical Levels

2.5 Phonetic Level

Conclusion to Analytic Part I

3. Analytic Part II

3.1 Brief Summary of “In Another Country'

3.2 Analysis of “In Another Country”

Conclusion to Analytic Part II

4. Analytic Part III

4.1 J. D. Salinger's brief biography

4.2 Brief Summary of “Pretty Mouth and green my eyes

4.3 Analysis of the story “Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes

Conclusion to Analytic part III

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The present graduation paper is devoted to the analysis of the stylistic device of repetition applied in literary texts: its functions, influence on the reader and how the text acquires its uniqueness with the help of the stylistic device of repetition. The subject is considered through the analysis of repetition in three short stories written by famous English-speaking writers. Each story has a different storyline and different characters,

thus the device of repetition bears different functions in each story. So far as there is an innumerable number of functions in various texts, there is not only one story brought for the analysis in the paper, but three stories, where the repetition is analyzed. alliteration epiphora hemingway salinger

Repetition is something, that many linguists find to be an interesting topic to study. Despite the fact, that repetition initially seems to be a device which is quite easy to research, it is definitely not, as soon as even professional linguists sometimes have problems analyzing the specific uses of the device of repetition in texts, stories, public speeches and so on.

The problem studied is of both theoretical and practical interest. Its value is determined by a deeper insight into the functional potential of the stylistic device of repetition. The data collected and the results achieved can be used for teaching purposes in linguistic universities as well as by anyone specializing in language study in general.

The main aim of the present paper is to bring out the functional capacities of the device of repetition in literary texts. The aim of the study determines the objectives which are as follows:

1. To present a theoretical overview of the linguistic features of the stylistic device of repetition.

2. To examine typologies and classifications of the stylistic device of repetition worked out be well-established linguists and stylisticians.

3. To carry out a linguostylistic analysis of three short stories aimed at detecting the uses of repetition by the authors.

4. To determine the functions that the stylistic device of repetition performs in each particular instance of its use.

5. To compare the functions of repetition in literary works by different authors.

The practical language material chosen for the analysis in the present paper comprises three short stories by E.M. Hemingway and J.D. Salinger.

As a methodological basis the works of Russian and foreign linguists (Aitchison J., Galperin I. R., Cuddon J.A., Fowler R., Fowler, H.W., Burchfield R.W, Baldick C., Vickers B., McArthur T., Persson G., . and others) on Stylistics and Text Linguistics are used.

Structurally the current work contains introduction, two chapters, conclusion, and a list of references.

The introduction sets the topic, defines the aim of the research, describes the material selected for the analysis, and outlines the contents of the sections of the paper.

Chapter I looks into the theoretical material concerning the stylistic device of repetition, reveals the functions of some specific types of repetition, explores the linguostylistic features of the device and shows examples on every type of repetition that can appear in literature.

Chapter II contains brief biographies of the authors whose stories are used for the analysis, brief summaries of the stories analysed and carries out the analysis of the stories which centers around the functioning of the device of repetition in stories.

The conclusion sums up the results of the research, describes basic findings of the analysis, namely how repetition affects the reader and how it embellishes the text.

The list of references contains a list of literature by consulted authorities (the works by Russian and foreign linguists)

1. Types of Repetition and its Functions

1.1 The meaning of repetition

Repetition is a broad phenomenon. It is a comprehensive topic that interests phonologists, morphologists, syntacticians, psycholinguists, discourse analysts and pragmatists. Within the field of stylistics repetition is a major rhetorical strategy for producing emphasis, clarity, amplification, or emotional effect.

Generally speaking, repetition is something that happens again. Persson even suggests that the term repetition can be understood as self explanatory. [Persson, 1974, p. 1]. Despite this fact, several definitions are included to provide the necessary information. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory defines repetition as 'an essential unifying element in nearly all poetry and much prose. It may consist of sounds, particular syllables and words, phrases, stanzas, metrical patterns, ideas, allusions and shapes.' [Cuddon, Preston, 1999, p. 742]

Similarly “The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics” suggests that repetition involves recurrence of corresponding elements. “The Oxford Companion to the English Language” also agrees with the above mentioned words and in addition to that it says that repetition creates rhythm [McArthur, 1992, p.862]. Moreover, repetition is described by McArthur as 'doing, saying or writing the same thing more than once. (…) The recurrence of processes, structures, elements and motives is fundamental to communication in general and language in particular.' [McArthur, 1992, p. 861].

Everything that appears more than once can be regarded as the repetition. As a result repetition is an essential element that appears in speeches, conversations, literary texts and other writings or oral processes. The recurrence of sounds, words or syntactic structures is used for rhetorical effects. It also serves as a unifying element in writing. Repetition appears at the syntactic as well as at the lexical level.

Jean Aitchison is worth quoting. She implies that repetition is hidden under many different names that are dependent on who is repeating and what is repeated.

Aitchison provides 27 terms altogether that can be considered as repetition and she adds that many other terms are to be found in specialized areas such as rhetoric. Moreover, as many kinds of repetition exist, it can even be said that 'language depends on repeated patterns.' [Aitchison, 1994, p. 15-16].

Galperin states, that 'repetition is an expressive means of language used when the speaker is under the stress of strong emotion' [Galperin, Stylistics, 1977, p. 211]

The topic of repetition is broad, so the focus of this paper is narrowed to the role of repetition in the functional style of emotive prose. More precisely, it is narrowed to repeated sounds, words, phrases and patterns that supposedly have an effect on the audience and fulfill specific functions.

Fowler and Fowler present rhetorical repetition as trying to 'secure impressiveness' and suggest that rhetorical repetition 'dictates whole structure of the sentence.' [Fowler and Fowler, 1922, p. 209-210].

Many discussions concerning repetition are led with the objective to find the answer. To begin with, “The New Fowler's Modern English Usage” explains that repetitions in ordinary grammatical structures can be accidental. Repetition can be undesirable if the same words are repeated too closely to each other. The improper usage is a frequently mentioned problem. For example, Preminger and Brogan believe that inappropriate use is grounded in its overuse by poets [Preminger, Brogan, 1993, p. 1035]. McArthur reminds that formal writing ordinarily avoids repetition 'for the sake of economy and in favour of a tradition of elegant variation.' [McArthur, 1992, p. 862].

Fowler and Burchfield state that the repetition of sounds or words is reasonable when used for rhetorical effects [Fowler, Burchfield, 2000, p. 668].

Repetition may be often considered undesirable and showing carelessness. As a result, it is arguable whether repetition is useful or not. Generally, it is understood that repetition has negative effects but only when used inadequately or with carelessness. In connection, Aitchison states: 'Linguists are therefore faced with the paradox that repetition is widely used, yet widely avoided.' [Aitchison, 1994, p.18]. Quirk contrasts that lexical recurrence is generally avoided as it may seem obtrusive. He also stresses that repetition is tolerated in legal language to escape misinterpretation. Nevertheless, repetition is commonly used in non-specialized texts to produce emphasis [Quirk et al., 1985. p. 1441].

The question of repetition being positive or negative is not to be answered straightforwardly. Fowler and Fowler in their book “The King's English” summarize that 'we have instances of repetition that are good in themselves; we have repetition that are neither particularly good nor particularly bad in them, but that offend simply by recurrence.' [Fowler H. W., Fowler F. G., 1922, p. 211]. To summarize these discussions, repetition may be perceived as useful but also as useless in many cases depending on the speaker's skilful usage.

1.2 Specific types of repetition

Vickers comments on rhetorical repetition and claims that 'it seems safe to say that no theory could ever embrace all types of repetition used in rhetoric, in literary or in other texts.' [Vickers, 1994, p. 98].

The functions of repetition may be wide, Vickers emphasizes that rhetorical figures are polysemous. He then adds that the form of devices is fixed, but their meaning and feelings are not. Those depend on the language itself and on the speaker's intentions [Vickers, 2002, p. 307].

Repetition is a literary device, which repeats several words or one word, or even a construction with an aim to deliver the author's idea more accurately and understandable to the reader. Repetition is not aimed at making a direct emotional impact, but, on the contrary, repetition is often used to attract the reader's attention to some particular words.

Let us now take a look at the classification of types of repetition which is widely recognized by linguists and stylisticians.

1.2.1 Alliteration

The first figure is alliteration. According to the Osborn, it is a technique that uses the repetition of sound at the beginning of words. For example, a word-combination “good game” will refer to alliteration. These words have the same letter “g” at the beginning. A more accessible definition of alliteration is offered by Galperin. He describes alliteration as a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance [Galperin, Stylistics, 1997, p.126]. He also adds, that the essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds. Some examples:

“The possessive instinct never stands still” [Galsworthy]

“Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing

Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before.” [E. A. Poe]

Other examples of alliteration will be provided further in the paragraph. In the following one there is a “miss” part which coincides within two words in the example “They came from Missouri, they came from Mississippi”. One more example “...middle-aged folks were willing to walk instead of ride the bus” accentuates the words “were”, “willing” and “walk” in this sentence by having the same letter at the beginning of each word. The author's intention in this sentence is to make reader believe, that those children really wanted to walk, than ride a bus. And on that note the part devoted to alliteration proceeds to the description of its main functions.

In literature the main function of this device is to emphasize a particular point or to make something more memorable. In prose alliteration helps to distinguish a certain sentence from the whole text and to draw the reader's attention to it. Alliteration can be both used in prose and poetry, although it can achieve different things in each form. Sometimes alliteration can be backed up by parallelism (the term of “parallelism” and “parallel structures” is described further in the paper), as it can be seen from the example:

'And so, from hour to hour, we ripe and ripe,

And then, from hour to hour, we rot and rot.' [Shakespeare]

1.2.2 Anaphora

Anaphora is a stylistic construction, which consists of repeating alike sounds, words or a group of words in the beginning of an each parallel row. Anaphora is defined as 'the repetition of the same words or phrases at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, sentences or lines.' [Preminger, Brogan, 1993, p. 73]. Its use is shown on the example:

'We have been told we cannot do this by a chorus of cynics. …We've been asked to pause for a reality check. We've been warned against offering the people of this nation false hope.'

The basic function of anaphora is that it serves the purpose of applying artistic effect to the texts in prose and poetry, as a literary device. Anaphora helps to create a special rhythm when reading the lines, and so it appears to be a pleasure to read. Also the text, where anaphora is applied is easily memorized. One important thing is that anaphora does not emphasize the ideas of the text.

Preminger and Brogan comment that anaphora is favoured because its structure reinforces the meaning of words. The Osborns think that it is suitable for conclusions to confirm and connect the ideas formed through the speech [Osborn, M., Osborn S., 1988, p. 247].

Another interesting example of anaphora is as follows:

“It rained on his lousy tombstone, and it rained on the grass on his stomach. It rained all over the place”. [A Catcher In The Rye, J. Salinger, 1951]

1.2.3 Epiphora and Mesodiplosis

The opposite to anaphora is epiphora (or epistrophe) which 'repeats words at the ends of clauses, lines or stanzas' [Preminger, Brogan, 1993, p. 73]. The function of epiphora is almost the same, as of anaphora, but despite anaphora it lays emphasis on a particular idea, and foregrounds the logical connection or emotional equation of the nearest clauses. As a rhetorical or stylistic device it appeals to the readers' senses and emotions. Moreover epiphora contributes to the rhythmical organization much more that anaphora owing to intonation emphasis and the sound equation of clause endings.

“Fie, fie, thou shamest thy shape, thy love, thywit,

Which, like a userer, abound'st in all,

And uses none in that true sense indeed

Which should bedeck thy shape, thy love, thy wit.” [William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet]

However, epiphora is rarely used in literature, but is a common phenomenon in debates and persuasive writing

Leanne also offers the term mesodiplosis in which word or phrase is repeated around the middle of successive sentences. [Leanne, 2009, p. 110]. This term is very uncommon and rarely used at all. Example of mesodiplosis:

“Persecuted, but notforsaken;

cast down, but notdestroyed”

1.2.4 Frame Repetition

Frame repetition is a figure of speech that consists of repetition of the same word or clause at the beginning of the sentence and at the end of it. Such usage of the device emphasizes the sentence and its message. Example:

'Possessing what we still were unpossessed by

Possessed by what we now no more possessed.' [Robert Frost, “The Gift Outright”]

Sometimes epiphora may combine to anaphora and both of them create a frame repetition:

John Anderson, my jo, John

When we were first acquent,

Your locks were like the raven,

Your bonnie brow was brent;

But now your brow is beld, John,

Your locks are like the snow;

But blessing on your frosty pow,

John Anderson, my jo!

Also frame repetition based on the combination of anaphora and epiphora may be complicated by syntactic parallelism:

If he wishes to float into fairyland, he reads a book; if he wishes to dash into the thick of battle, he reads a book, if he wishes to soar into heaven, he reads a book. [Chesterton]

1.2.5 Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is defined by Baldick as a 'term for repeated use of conjunctions to link together a succession of words, clauses, or sentences.' [Baldick, 2001, p.199]. Galperin suggests understanding polysyndeton as “the stylistic device of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component part. [Galperin, Stylistics, 1977, p.226] It can be seen in an example:

“The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect.” [Dickens]

One very important thing about polysyndeton is that there are at least three conjunctions in a row needed to call such a device a “polysyndeton”. For example, in the phrase “a generation that uses their own creativity and talent and technology” - there is no polysyndeton, just enumeration.

Preminger and Brogan state that conjunction 'and' is the most spread conjunction in literature. However, some other conjunctions are suitable as well, for example preposition 'or' which presents various options. Polysyndeton 'may add emphasis to the items in an enumeration or may represent the flow and continuity.' [Preminger, Brogan, 1993, p. 968]. Sentences which are incorporated by this device become more dynamic, intensive and filled with affection. Through repeating, the rhythm becomes important. Leanne states that a sentence, which is backed up by polysyndeton seems to be longer and the list of words seems to be longer as well and so it make polysyndeton to be a very valuable technique in building the sentences. [Leanne, 2009, p. 118].

Polysyndeton can perform the following functions in a text:

1) Rhythmical function. It can be explained as that the repetition of conjunctions and other means of connection makes an utterance more rhythmical.

2) Disintegrating function. Generally combines elements of thought, that are homogeneous into one whole resembling enumeration.

3) Function of expressing sequence.

1.2.6 Parallel Structures

Parallelism is distinguished in “The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics” as 'the repetition of identical or similar syntactic patterns in adjacent phrases, clauses or sentences.' The pattern of parallel structures is usually doubled but may be repeated more times [Preminger, Brogan, 1993, p. 877]. Parallel structures are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition or parallelism) and conjunctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). It arises from the definition that parallelism is distinguished by the repeated syntactic forms that are in equivalence. For example:

“It starts with changing our hearts, and changing our minds, broadening our spirit.'

Fabb deals with parallelism more closely and suggests three subcategories:

1. Syntactic parallelism.

2. Lexical parallelism.

3. Phonological parallelism. This category can embrace such devices as alliteration (two or more words begin with the same letter or sound), assonance (two or more words contain the same sound or vowel letter, ex. - 'Try to light the fire') and rhyme (when the vowel and consonant form the last syllable and it sounds the same as in the next line or sentence, ex. - “food and good”)

Syntactic parallelism is often accompanied by lexical parallelism and involves 'a pair of parallel words, one in each section of the text' [Fabb, 2003, p. 462-463]. The words may have similar form or number of syllables. The sentences may look the same but some elements may be changed or different word categories may be used.

1.2.7 Chiasmus

According to Galperin, “Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases” [Galperin, Stylistics, 1977, p.211].

'Down dropped the breeze,

The sails dropped down.' (Coleridge)

To achieve chiasmus writers can make sudden changes from active to passive voice or vice versa. It can appear only when there are two successive sentences or coordinate parts of a sentence. It is important to point out, that chiasmus is a syntactical, not a lexical device. It means that it is only the arrangement of the parts of the utterance which constitutes this stylistic device. One famous person who favored chiasmus is Byron:

'Men are the sport of circumstances, when

The circumstances seem the sport of men.'

Usually, chiasmus is used to break the monotony of parallel constructions. But it always brings a new shade of meaning or emphasis, whatever the purpose of its usage. And it contributes to the rhythmical quality of the utterance.

1.3 Functions of repetition

Linguists try to answer a difficult question about the functions of repetition and provide a wide range of functions like in the following quotation: 'Repetition functions didactically, playfully, emotionally, expressively, ritualistically; repetition can be used for emphasis or iteration, clarification, confirmation; it can incorporate foreign words into a language, in couplets, serving as a resource for enriching the language.' [Johnstone et al., 1994, p. 6].

The listed functions do not cover all possible functions, though. Other uses include academics copying quotes, serving, or for sustaining conversation. It serves as a persuasive device as well (Johnstone et al., 1994, p. 6). The long list of functions suggests a variety of uses. As a result the functions change according to different speakers' purposes.

As stated above, the number of possible functions seems to be almost unlimited. Tannen is worth quoting suggesting that: 'it would be hubris (and hopeless) to attempt to illustrate every form and function of repetition.' [Tannen, 2007, p. 64]. Kjellmer is also aware that it is not possible to try to analyse all functions of repetitions because there are so many of them. Some functions may be carried out together and it is difficult to distinguish which one is more prominent. The transcription of speech makes defining the function even more difficult, because intonation is not provided there [Kjellmer, 2008, p.43]. These arguments are applicable also for the analytical part of this paper. Johnstone et al. (1994) try to describe the functions of repetition more generally and in a broader perspective. They mainly notify the reader about the infinite amount of possible usages. Nevertheless, having listed possible functions, a need for categorization appears. Aitchison tries to summarize the functions of repetition into three overlapping categories.

'First, repetition may extend existing language resources; Second, it promotes textual cohesion and comprehensibility with text used in its widest sense to include spoken speech; third it facilitates conversational interaction.' [Aitchison, 1994, p. 19].

The first two terms concentrate mostly on self-repetition; the latter term concentrates on other repetition [Aitchison, 1994, p. 19]. The characteristic of public speech is that it does not require interaction, the type of conversational interaction which Aitchison suggests is not dealt with in this paper.

From Persson's point of view, six different functions of repetition can be distinguished. These are intensifying, emphatic, conjoined, mimetic, simple and purposive repetition (Persson, 1974). Persson's work “Repetition in English” provides a comprehensive description and division of repetition and explains the most common functions of repetition in a wider perspective of spoken discourse and other texts.

2. Analytic Part I

2.1 E.M. Hemingway's Brief Biography

Ernest Miller Hemingway is one of the most popular and influential American writers of the 20^th century. Hemingway obtained his fame by novels and short stories. He was born in Oak-Park (Illinois) in a family of a doctor. He wrote a famous book dedicated to memories of his youth period - 'A Moveable Feast', that was published after his death in 1964. In some of Ernest's early works of the first significant collection 'In Our Time' (1925) there are some moments of his childhood reflected on the pages. Soon there were some less triumphal stories - 'Death in the Afternoon' (1932) and 'Green Hills of Africa (1935). 'Death in the Afternoon' is dedicated to the bullfights in Spain, in which the author sees a tragic ritual rather than sport. The story under analysis, which is titled “Cat in the Rain” was published in 1925 and was a part of a short story collection “In Our Time”.

It can be said, that in his real life Ernest Hemingway had almost the same activity as the characters of his books had. Hemingway died in Ketchum (Idaho), he shot himself with a rifle. Most characters of his books received the name of 'Hemingway's character'. Ernest Hemingway's writing style was influenced by famous authors like Mark Twain, Gertrude Stein and some others. This style was absolutely new, easy for perception and quite clear for the readers. His manner of writing is mostly conversational, but objective, unemotional and not infrequently ironic. Such manner had a great influence on writers all over the world and contributed a great deal to the revival of the art of dialogue.

2.2 Brief Summary of 'Cat in the Rain'

The short story 'Cat in the Rain' was written in the 1920's by Ernest Hemingway. The action of the story takes place in Italy, in a seaside hotel. The main characters of the story are two Americans, who are a husband and a wife. The husband's name is George, but the wife's name is not stated in the story. George lies in a hotel room reading a book. His wife stands by the window looking on the garden. Outside there is a cat sheltering from the rain under the green table. The cat tries to cover itself in order not to get wet. The American girl feels for the cat and is willing to bring it to the hotel room. Having descended down the stairs she notices a hotel keeper, who bows reveredly. The American girl likes the hotel keeper. In his presence she feels her importance. George's wife and a maidservant go outside in the rain, but the cat has already gone. She returns to the hotel room, where George asks her if she had found the cat. George gives up listening to his wife and continues reading. Then his wife starts to act like a child and begins to be capricious. She whines about a new haircut, about knifes and forks and many other things. George seems to be indifferent, but sharply silences his wife. Then there is a knock at the door and a maidservant enters the hotel room with a cat holding it firmly in her arms, and then the maidservant says that the hotel keeper had sent it to the girl.

2.3 Analysis of “Cat in the Rain”

To analyse every literary work written by Ernest Miller Hemingway - is a difficult thing to do. Even a very meticulous analysis may lead to elimination of artistic integrity and spontaneity of the emotional impact. The author's intonation and subtext are very important to keep to when analyzing. Among the linguistic and stylistic means which the author resorts to one can observe extensive use of repetitions. A wide use of the stylistic device of repetition is considered to be a marker of Hemingway's personal style. Repetition manifests itself at different levels: lexical, syntactical and phonetic. The following analysis explores the use of repetitions in the story “Cat in the Rain”: specifically, the analysis includes the study of the repeated items at lexical, syntactic and phonetic levels and effects created by such lunguistic arrangements.

2.4 Syntactical and Lexical levels

“Italians came from a long way off to look up at the war monument. It was made of bronze and glistened in the rain. It was raining. The rain dripped from the palm trees. Water stood in pools on the gravel paths. The sea broke in a long line in the rain and slipped back down the beach to come up and break again in a long line in the rain. The motor cars were gone from the square by the war monument. Across the square in the doorway of the cafe a waiter stood looking out at the empty square”.

At the beginning of the text there is a description of the place where the Americans spend their vacations. A thing that draws attention in this description is the constant use of a word “rain”. It is repeated 5 times in this short extract. For many people rain is associated with something dull, something boring, with gray colors, negative emotions, bad mood and so on. Hemingway uses the repetition of this word to create a special atmosphere. He sets the scene in the reader's mind. Possessing symbolic features, the rain can also be associated with the mood and lives of these two Americans, George and his wife. Or also the rain may be associated with the relations between them. Or even rain can signify the inevitability of changes, because the nature changes and there's usually some special smell after the rain and the air seems much lighter, easier to breathe and so on.

The sentence “The sea broke in a long line in the rain and slipped back down the beach to come up and break again in a long line in the rain.” makes use of the syntactic device of parallel structures combined with lexical repetition. These stylistic means help to create an image of a repeated action, or more precisely, the routine. It also refers to the relations between George and his wife, and means that they cannot change something in their life. The structure has a function of emphasizing the emotional impact on the reader's senses, it is used with the aim to create a strong desire to overcome a barrier.

The wife goes down and meets the hotel-keeper. There appears an interesting use of repetition describing her attitude towards him. The first use of the construction “she liked” appears as the additional information within the conversation between him and her:

'II piove,' the wife said. She likedthe hotel-keeper.

And in this sentence the attitude is expressed towards him in general, but there follow several other sentences with the repetition of this lexical item arranged with the help of parallel structures:

“She liked the deadly serious way he received any complaints. She liked his dignity. She liked the way he wanted to serve her. She liked the way he felt about being a hotel-keeper. She liked his old, heavy face and big hands”.

In total, the combination “she liked” is used five times. An interesting fact about this construction, is that there is not a single case of using the combination “she liked” towards George. The construction is used to mark the contrast in the girl's attitude towards these two men as well as their different attitude towards her. The girl finds the hotel-keeper reliable. He produces an impression of a person who can defend a girl, and, probably, it is a quality which George lacks. For example, “the deadly serious way he received any complaints”, “the way he wanted to serve her”, “liked his old, heavy face and big hands”. And the repeated use of “she liked” - all these means show that in relation to the hotel-keeper, in fact, the wife feels herself as a little girl in the presence of a man.

When the girl goes to find the cat she has a conversation with the maid, and there she expresses her desire to get the cat:

“Oh, I wanted it so much. I wanted a kitty”

The author once again shows the disappointment of a loss, the kitty very likely stands for the family happiness of George and his wife. The happiness is somewhere near, but she fails to find it, the happiness slipped away at the last moment. The use of repetition shows how much George's wife lacks happiness, and this is not the husband who calms her down, but a maid, who even went out to cover the American girl from the rain. We can come to a conclusion, that the maid is somehow related to mother, who never upsets her daughter, who is associated with something sacred, full of kindness and so on, and the hotel-keeper stands for the father, who is a symbol of stability and confidence, the head of a family, who can protect any person of his family from any harm. This is seen clearly in the sentence:

“Something felt very small and tight inside the girl. The padrone made her feel very small and at the same time really important”.

It is the feeling just like all the little girls have in the presence of their parents.

'I wanted it so much,' she said. 'I don't know why 1 wanted it so much. I wanted that poor kitty. It isn't any fun to be a poor kitty out in the rain.'

In this part the repetition also highlights the girl's wish to receive what she wanted so much. And again, the kitty stands for happiness and other positive feelings, which they do not have. One more thing that foregrounds the symbolic meaning of the cat is the sentence “it was gone”, which the American girl utters as a reply to George's question “Did you get the cat?” when she returned to their hotel room. People do not have the habit to speak about animals in that way. So it is another index of the symbolic usage of the noun “cat”

As the girl hasn't received what she wanted she begins to be capricious again:

'Igetso tired of it,' she said. 'Igetso tired of looking like a boy.'

The repetition in these sentences participates in conveying the emotional state of George's wife. Her inability to find that cat provokes other feelings and emotions, from this moment the reader can trace the growth of negative emotions within the girl's soul, but lately these emotions are set back by her husband, who is indifferent to the wife's wish. A contrast between the feelings of George and those of his wife can be seen, when he replies, that she looks pretty nice. That renders the meaning, that George accepts such a dull life, but the girl wants some changes to happen in their lives.

Further in the text there are many cases of using “I want”, like small children want something and begin to be capricious about it, and then the wife turns into a little girl, who is not yet ready to be a grown-up and to live and travel with a young man. In fact, the repetition of “I want” is used to create the image of a little girl:

Discourse Markdown Techniques

'I want to pull my hair back tight and smooth and make a big knot at the back that I can feel,' she said. 'I want to have a kitty to sit on my lap and purr when 1 stroke her.'

'Yeah?' George said from the bed.

'And I want to eat at a table with my own silver and I want candles. And I want it to be spring and I want to brush my hair out in front of a mirror and I want a kitty and I want some new clothes.'

'Oh, shut up and get something to read,' George said. He was reading again.

His wife was looking out of the window. It was quite dark now and still raining in the palm trees.

'Anyway, I want a cat,' she said, 'I want a cat. I want a cat now. If I can't have long hair or any fun, I can have a cat,'

Innumerable cases of repetition in this extract show the continuing growth of the girl's negative emotions. When she says that if she can't have a cat, then she wants other things can be understood as if she cannot satisfy her desires about physical things, then she wants at least to be happy in her life with that man. It seems that she may burst out crying as a little girl, and her emotions can be compared to the weather conditions outside “It was quite dark now and still raining in the palm trees”. The word “dark” bears the meaning that there is hardly any chance of getting better in this life.

As the girl feels completely down, there is a knock at the door and the maid brings a kitty to the girl. But the cat is not the cat the girl wanted, and, in fact, Lares and Penates, that the girl wanted so much do not acquit themselves. The cruel irony is hidden in the last part, where the cat is brought to her, that it is not what she really wanted.

In this story George seems indifferent to everything what goes on with her wife. For example, there are three cases in the text, narrating that George was reading, and the construction every time is almost the same:

4. The husband went on reading, lying propped up with the two pillows at the foot of the bed.

5. She opened the door of the room. George was on the bed, reading.

6. George was reading again.

7. He was reading again.

The repetition throughout the text creates an emotional impact on the reader's senses. The use of Present Continuous in relation to George's reading is not incidental, it goes to foreground his continuous indifference towards everything. The hotel-keeper is contrasted to George in the text. He is ready to do anything for the girl. The two human's qualities are compared in the text - human dignity, solicitude and respect are opposed selfishness, impersonality and indifference.

2.5 Phonetic Level

In the conversation between George and his wife there can be detected repetitions of the same initial sound. For example, in the first utterance which belongs to the American girl, and it is:

'I'm going down and get that kitty,'

In this sentence the wife avoids asking George if she can take the cat, but she has a strong intention to take that cat. It is even a kind of statement, that she will go and nothing will stop her. Alliteration is used in the sentence, the function of this repetition is to emphasize a particular point, namely, the girl's determination, and to foreground this sentence. The author's intention is to make the reader believe in the wife's words.

But George offers his help to go and take the cat instead of his wife, although his desire to do it is not strong enough as he easily gives up on the idea, when his wife stands her ground to do it on her own. The wife's intention to take the kitty changes in progress and can be traced in:

4) 'I'mgoing down and get that kitty,'

5) No, I'llget it.

In the second sentence the intention rises, as the verb “am going” converts to a more intense modal verb “will”

Conclusion To Analytic Part I

To conclude this part of the paper it can be said, that the whole story is written in the same mood, which is emphasized throughout the text, from the beginning to the end. Cases of repetition in the story can be classified by the function they carry:

1. Repetition that sets and sustains the mood:

[... glistened in the rain. It was raining. The rain dripped from...]

2. Repetition that shows the contrast between a husband and a hotel-keeper:

[…She liked the deadly serious way he received any complaints. She liked his dignity. She liked the way...]

3. Repetition that demonstrates George's indifference:

[... went on reading, lying propped...]

[…George was on the bed, reading...]

4. Repetition that expresses the girl's image of a little girl

[... I want candles. And I want it to be spring and I want to brush my hair out in front of a mirror and I want a kitty...]

[...'Igetso tired of it,' she said. 'Igetso tired of looking like a boy.'...]

Although repetition may seem too intrusive in the story, it perfectly fits the narration. Repetition bears the emotional character of the story, although heavy sadness is perceived gradually, as under the cover of insignificant caprices of a young woman stands a great drama of her life, that she is as unhappy, as a cat in the rain.

3. Analytic Part II

3.1 Brief summary of the story “In Another Country”

The story takes place in an Italian hospital, where an American receives his treatment after the injury of his knee during World War I. The story describes the relationships that develop in Milan between the American and five Italian soldiers who have been wounded and are receiving physical therapy. The story is narrated by the American young soldier. Young soldiers are disliked by the townspeople, with the exception of the girls that work in the cafe. And this is all because they are officers. The resentment sets the young people apart from the street life in Milan. But there are also some differences between young men within their group. The soldier who is the narrator of the story received his medal for an accidental war injury. Three young Italians who are from near Milan, contrasting with the American soldier, have received their wounds and medals because of their bravery in battle. The fourth soldier, who came out of a good Italian family was wounded just after one hour spent on the battleground. The American soldier feels he has much in common with this young man because his bravery could not be tested. After drinking, the narrator of the story thinks that he might have done all the things that the Italians did to receive their awards. But he knows that he “would never have done such things” and understands that in fact he is “very much afraid to die”. All the wounded soldiers go to the hospital every afternoon to use the machines for recovery procedures. The doctor assures the American soldier that he may be able to play football again even though his knee is not able to bend. There is an Italian major, who was one of the greatest fencers in Italy before his injury. He becomes a friend to the American soldier and he assists him in learning to speak Italian grammatically. In the story the American soldier and the Italian major are described as two persons of the same age, but the Italian one seems to be more mature, than the American. The major does not believe in bravery, unlike the three “hunting-hawks”, as they were called in the text. In the end of the story the major's young wife dies. He becomes enraged and distraught by this fact. So he loses his temper with the American soldier, but then he apologizes and tells him of his loss. After three days of mourning, the major appears at the hospital again wearing a black band on his sleeve.

3.2 Analysis of “In Another Country”

In this part of the paper an analysis of another short story written by Ernest Miller Hemingway titled “In Another Country” will be presented. In the run of analysis we focused on the instances of the author's uses of repetition and the main objective was to define its functions. In some cases repetition is used just like in the story “Cat In the Rain”, for example it is also used to set the atmosphere of the story based on weather conditions in the place. But there have also been discovered other of functions of repetition. One of our initial observations is that repetition in this story is not so widely used, as in the previous story that we analysed.

So, the story begins with the repetition that, as it was said, sets the atmosphere, which in it's turn creates the mood:

“In the fall the war was always there, but we did not go to it any more. It was cold

in the fall in Milan and the dark came very early... It was a cold fall and the wind came down from the mountains.”

The repetition of the word combinations which contain the lexical items “fall” and “cold” foregrounds the gloomy feeling which becomes central in creating the atmoshpere of the story. The fall appeals to the reader's senses as something dull and gray. Also the repetition creates a rhythmical effect here and makes the part memorable to the reader. After the word-combination “in the fall” in the first sentence there is the mentioning of the war. In the second sentence “in the fall” is followed by “the dark came very early”. So the words “fall”, “war” and “dark” combine and set the atmosphere of the sanguinary events at that time taking place everywhere in the world.

The first paragraph is framed with the mentioning of the cold fall. For example, there is “it was cold in the fall” at the beginning, and there is “it was a cold fall” in the last sentence of the paragraph. Such repetition, where the repeated items come up in the strong positions of the beginning and the end of one paragraph, creates an strong effect that helps to fix the atmosphere in the reader's memory for the rest of the story.

Also two more instances of repetition at the beginning can be analyzed:

“It was cold in the fall in Milan and the dark came very early. Then the electric lights came on, and it was pleasant along the streets looking in the windows”.

The word “came” is used towards contrasting things, darkness and lights and it is written in the manner as it is something that happens every day and has an effect of a routine, of some actions occurring day in, day out. However lights also refer to something positive in contrast with darkness and the war. In fact, when lights turn on in the street it becomes more lively and “pleasant”.

Moving further through the paragraph, there can be seen a sentence with the repetition of the conjunction “and”:

“The deer hung stiff and heavy and empty, and small birds blew in

the wind and the wind turned their feathers”

The stylistic device used in the sentence is called polysyndeton, which is repetition of conjunctions. The device represents continuity and also represents emphasis on the enumerated items. On the whole the sentence evokes the image of death, though at first sight it only contains a description of a shop window. But in fact, it is aimed at making the reader feel uneasy imagining all these numerous animal carcasses pictured by Hemingway and echoing the impressions a battlefield covered with dead bodies of soldiers would produce. The repetition also creates a rhythm here and even makes the reader speed-up with the reading.

The second paragraph of the story has two interesting sentences in the descriptive part with repetition of words derived from the same root:

“Two of the ways were alongside canals, but they were long. Always, though, you crossed a bridge across a canal to enter the hospital.”

One function of this instance of root repetition can be stated and already has been mentioned in relation to other examples of repetition in the text. So these words that sound alike and draw the reader's attention, as a result they make the text more memorable. However, this is not the only purpose for which the author used the wordplay in the paragraph. Using this stylistic device Hemingway wanted to embellish this paragraph. After reading these two sentences there is a feeling of beauty of the language. Eventually, the author achieved what he wanted. These two sentences sound gracefully and the reader will surely remember them. So we can conclude that the root repetition here performs an aesthetic function.

When there is a conversation between the doctor and the major, after looking at the photograph the major replies, handing back the photo to the doctor:

Discourse Markdown Structure

“Very interesting, very interesting”

Discourse Markdown Meaning

Sometimes such use of repetition demonstrates the indifference of the speaking person, or one's perplexity in the situation, or if a person is lost in thought. Actually, this is a more colloquial type of repetition, and in the context it is used in a conversation. So this device of repetition functions to show preoccupation and anxiety of the major.

Analyzing the story and looking for the stylistic devices of repetition it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the very first sentence of the first paragraph and the last sentence in the seventh paragraph, which is in the middle of text, display a great similarity in terms of their lexical arrangement and meaning.

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